Ulysses S. Grant

Served as president from 1869-1877
Era: Reconstruction Era

American Identity and Culture
Grant’s presidency took place towards the middle and the end of the Reconstruction period. In 1872, Congress ratified the Amnesty Act of 1872 which removed the restriction on people who used to be affiliated with the Confederacy, except for the major leaders in the Confederacy. The act proved that the northerners were ready to forget the resentment they had towards the Confederates. However, the act also allowed for the southern conservatives to vote for the Democrats which would allow them to regain control over the state governments. Grant’s domestic policies often tried to alleviate the resentment of the northerners towards the southerners so that the southerners could live in the United States peacefully.
Economic Transformation and Globalization
After the Civil War, the South’s agricultural based economy was destroyed since they no longer had any slaves to tend to the back breaking labor. Initially, white landowners tried to force free blacks into contracts to work in the fields. The contracts that the whites tried to force upon the freed blacks attempted to make the signer agree to permanent labor. However, freed blacks did not want to work for white landowners and instead wanted self-sufficiency. This forced the whites to adopt a system known as sharecropping. In sharecropping, the owner provided the seeds and other farming supplies in exchange for half of the crops.
During Grant’s second term of presidency, the panic of 1873 struck the United States. The cause of the panic of 1873 was mainly due to industries and railroads being constantly built and financers over speculating. As a result, many northerners lost their homes and jobs. People who worked in the cities and on farms often tried to earn money by demanding greenback paper money in which was not supported by gold. The following year, Grant vetoed a bill that distributed greenbacks. By vetoing the bill, Grant showed his support for the bankers and creditors who favored hard money.
Environment
President Grant, unlike any other presidents, wanted to defend the Native Americans. He believed they were “harmless” and wanted to protect them from Americans who only wanted to take their lands. Grant understood that if the Americans were to take the Native Americans land, then the Native Americans would not have anywhere else to live. In Grant’s inauguration address, he stated his desire to aid the Native Americans. Grant’s bold words did not benefit him in the election as he gained more Americans who hated him for defending the Native Americans since they wanted to expand westward. In 1869, Grant initiated a Peace Policy that attempted to change the Native Americans beliefs, customs, and lifestyle to be more like the Americans in hopes that one day they are able to apply for citizenship. However, Grant’s Peace Policy had a flaw. By trying to teach the Native Americans to farm, the Native Americans did not have the fertile land necessary for farming. As a result, Grant’s actions were useless in aiding the Native Americans because the Americans still wanted to expand westward and seize Native American territory.
Politics and Citizenship
Following the thirteenth and fourteenth amendment, Congress passed the fifteenth amendment in 1869. The amendment stated that a state cannot deny a citizen’s right to vote based on color or race. As a result the fifteenth amendment secured suffrage for African Americans. In 1875, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1875 which promised equal accommodations in public places such as railroads, hotels, and theaters. The act also stated that it courts were not allowed to prohibit African Americans from juries. However the act was not enforced.
As a president, Grant had no political experience whatsoever. President Grant only held military experience in which helped him to understand to send only the minimum amount of troops needed in the South, so that the Southerners would not rebel against the federal government. Grant only sent the troops to protect the civilians who were being attacked by the Ku Klux Klan.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
After the Civil War, blacks gained their freedom. To blacks, freedom meant being able to reunite with their families after being separated because of slavery. Freedom also meant being able to get an education to learn to read and write. Freedom meant being able to travel around the states without permission from their masters. After being freed, blacks no longer wanted to depend on their white masters and instead depend on themselves. This belief of autonomy led African Americans to create their own black churches, schools, colleges, and communities.
In 1867, Nathaniel Bedford Forrest (an ex-Confederate leader) founded an organization known as the Ku Klux Klan. The group was mainly composed of southern whites who tried to scare the white reformers and blacks. The organization burned buildings owned by blacks and murdered freedmen so they did not have a chance to vote. In 1870, Congress ratified the Force Acts of 1870 and 1871 which gave power to federal officials to stop the organization and to protect citizen’s rights in the South.
War and Diplomacy
In 1871, the Treaty of Washington was negotiated between the United States and Britain. Sir John Rose from Britain was sent to the United States to negotiate with U.S Secretary of State Hamilton Fish to settle the dispute of the Alabama territory. The issue was that the United States had claimed Alabama as a U.S territory, but Britain stated that they had claims on Alabama. As a result, the treaty corrected the misunderstanding between the United States and Britain and strengthened their alliance.
One of President Grant’s many motives was to have Haiti under the United States control. Grant wanted Haiti as a place for freedmen to live and work and wanted to make use of Haiti’s natural resources. Grant sent Orville E. Babcock to negotiate in hopes of having a treaty signed to annex Haiti. Unfortunately, Grant’s goal was never accomplished because Senator Charles Sumner was against the annexing of Haiti because he believed it would cause a shortage in labor in the South.

Andrew Johnson

Served as president from 1865-1869
Era: Reconstruction Era

American Identity and Culture
During Andrew Johnson’s presidency, the American people had just suffered through a terrible civil war with tremendous losses of lives. To make matters worse, the country’s previous president was assassinated. As the vice president, Johnson assumed the responsibility of president after Lincoln’s assassination. The job of Reconstruction was placed in his hands as the American people struggled to recover from the war’s devastating consequences. The issues at hand were the treatment of the now emancipated blacks and whether they should be accepted as citizens, and the punishment for the southern states that seceded.
Economic Transformations and Globalization
The Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868. This amendment declared citizens as those born or naturalized within the country. It also required the states to acknowledge U.S. citizens’ rights and give them “equal protection of the laws” and “due process of law.” Other parts of the Fourteenth Amendment were the disqualification of ex-Confederate leaders from being state or federal officials, penalizing a state if it kept someone who was eligible from voting, and repudiating Confederacy debts. By the end of the Civil War, the Confederacy’s economy was already in deep trouble. Since the Union repudiated, or refused to acknowledge, its debts, the Confederate states were saved.
Environment
In 18 66, Russia showed an interest in selling its holdings in North America. When the William H. Seward, the United States’ Secretary of State, offered $7.2 million, the Russians accepted and handed over nearly 500,000 miles of land that would become Alaska. This newly obtained territory differed from previous purchases in that its inhabitants (aside from Native Americans) would become American citizens immediately, but the issue of statehood was unclear. Critics saw the purchase of the frozen land as “Seward’s Folly.” Others saw this as a step to greater American expansion such as the acquisitions of Canada and much of the Northern Hemisphere.
Politics and Citizenship
Andrew Johnson alienated moderate Republicans during his presidency by vetoing two crucial bills. The first bill intended to increase the Freedmen’s Bureau’s services and protection that was offered to all blacks and homeless whites. Meanwhile, the second bill dealt with civil rights and nullified the Black Codes while guaranteeing blacks complete statuses as citizens and equal rights. Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act after Johnson’s veto in 1867. This law did not give the president the right to remove a federal official from their post without approval from the Senate. Johnson saw the law as unconstitutional and challenged it. As a result, the House of Representatives impeached him.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
Even though blacks were finally emancipated, Black Codes were adopted that restricted their rights. The codes stopped blacks from buying or renting land and borrowing money to do so, forced freedmen into semi-bondage once they signed work contracts, and did not allow blacks to testify against whites in court. In 1866, the Civil Rights Act passed the government which declared all African Americans to be citizens of the United States and strived to protect them from the Black Codes in the southern states. This shows that even though the slaves finally achieved their freedom, they were still limited by their lack of rights.
War and Diplomacy
Congress managed to pass three Reconstruction acts in 1867 while Johnson was president. A radical step that these acts took was placing the South under military control. The former Confederate states were divided military districts with each in the Union’s control. The Reconstruction acts also added more requirements for achieving readmission into the Union, which punished the states that seceded by making it more difficult for them to reenter. In order to be able to gain readmission, the Fourteenth Amendment had to be ratified by the ex-Confederate state and it had to guarantee that all adult males had the right to vote, without regard to race.

Abraham Lincoln

Served as president from 1861-1865
Era: Civil War Era

American Identity and Culture
Many wartime events happened during the presidency of Abraham Lincoln but the causes for the war include many things. One major leading cause of the war was the Book Uncle Tom’s Cabin which was written by Harriet Beecher Stowe who had written the book. The book talked about the life of a slave and his daily abuses from his slave master. Other major books that came from Lincoln’s presidency include the book War and Peace. This book was written by Leo Tolstoy and it talked about the Civil war and how it disrupted the peace of America. This book was also an epic and it was created as a response to many events, especially violent wars or massacres, throughout the world. Another major cultural creation was the painting Luncheon on the Grass, painted by Edouard Manet. This painting showed the different controversial issued from the past, such as those from Remembrance of Things Past, by Proust.
Economic Transformations and Globalization
With the Civil war beginning in the time of Abraham Lincoln’s presidency, the Northern Union of the United States had many more advantages economically. The north had a strong economy of bankers that controlled well over 85 percent of the entire nation. Their capital was also in control of the nation and they produced over 90% of the manufactured goods that were created in the United States. They have a lot more transportation and controlled 70 percent of the railroads in the United States and even the majority of the farmlands that were for foods and not for cash-crops. With a large percent of the food and transportation and manufactured goods, they were put at the advantage compared to the south. The southern Confederate States of America were at a huge disadvantage economically to their Union counterpart. The Confederacy had many farmlands but most of which were for the production of Cotton and other various raw materials that were only used for profit. The large difference economically put the South in a huge disadvantage in the American Civil War.
Environment
The Civil war was one of the first wars to become modern. It used many deadly weapons and many people died. The new weapons caused major offensive changes and because of this, major defensive changes had to be made. People began to use Trenches and stay on the defense. These trenches were extremely horrible and the conditions were worse. On battlefields, and in the whole war, more people died from diseases from the living environments that soldiers had to face then from actually battle losses. The horrible conditions that were created by these brought horrible diseases such as Cholera and other deadly diseases. The rivers and geography of the United States was also put to use in the war. Through the Anaconda Plan, the Union hoped to take over the Mississippi River which and the Gulf of Mexico, which would completely block off the Confederacy’s imports and exports.
Politics and Citizenship
Major political action took place during the term of Abraham Lincoln’s Presidency. One major thing was the Emancipation proclamation that was passed in 1863. This proclamation declared that the Unions goal was to end slavery in the United States. This was a major political legislation because it riled up a lot of morale in the Union and also secured the foreigners support for the Union instead of the Confederacy. Another major political action that took place was the Fight for the citizenships of the African Americans. Through this Emancipation Proclamation, African Americans could now join the army and be guaranteed the right to become citizens. Thousands of African Americans lined up at drafting areas and signed up to join the army because of this guarantee for the citizenship of them. The Southern part of the United States had also split from the rest of the United States and seceded and began the Confederate States of America. This started when South Carolina seceded from the Union on the day of Lincoln’s inauguration.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
Slavery played a huge role in the time of Abraham Lincoln’s presidency. During this time, The Southern Confederacy fought with the Northern Union to protect the practice slavery, whereas the Northern Union fought against the Southern Confederacy to first preserve the Union but later resolved to End and Abolish slavery once and for all. This goal was met when Lincoln established the Emancipation Proclamation. This Proclamation had declared that the Northern Unions goal was to completely abolish slavery. Before the Emancipation Proclamation was the Confiscation acts that freed slaves of those that rebelled against the United States. Although Lincoln declared to end slavery through that proclamation, earlier in the war he was reluctant to end slavery because: he wanted to keep the Border States with the Union, the constitution protected slave property, some northerners would not like ending slavery, and because he feared that the action of ending slavery could overturn in the next election.
War and Diplomacy
War was a major part of the Term for Abraham Lincoln. During this time the American Civil war took place. The Civil war placed as the highest amount of US deaths in all of the wars that the US took place in. In the Battle of Antietam alone, over 22,000 men were killed, making it the single bloodiest day of combat in all of American history. General Grant was also personally appointed by Lincoln for his great tactical skills and eventually led the Union to victory. The Trent Affair also took place when the Union stopped a boat named the Trent who had two negotiators on the ship that were trying to get British to side with the Confederacy. After the Union took the people off the ship, Britain threatened to go to war unless the two diplomats were to be released, and Lincoln gave into the British demands. After this incident, the Confederacy was able to buy ships from British yards and because of this they caused serious damage to the merchant ships from the Union. These commerce-raider ships had caused a lot of damage to the Union and in the end; Great Britain agreed to pay the United States $15.5 million dollars for damages that were caused from their ships that the Confederacy used.

James Buchanan

Served as president from 1857-1861
Era: Westward Expansion Era

American Identity and Culture
When Congress attempted to ratify a bill to construct more college in the United States, President James Buchanan vetoed the bill. President Buchanan believed that there were too many educated people and the need to build more college was unnecessary. President Buchanan was also a very devout Christian and wanted to strengthen the Presbyterian Church, but because he was too busy with other political problems, he was unable to start his religious reform ideas.
In addition during President Buchanan’s presidency, there was discrimination against women. In 1849, a woman named Elizabeth Blackwell received her medical degree and eventually became the first female doctor in the United States. In 1857, Elizabeth Blackwell and her sister Emily Blackwell set up an infirmary together known as the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children. From this, the Blackwell sisters proved female capability.
Economic Transformation and Globalization
The tariff of 1857 was passed to try to fix the Walk Tariff of 1846. The tariff of 1857 reduced taxes in the United States by an average of 17 percent. The tariff was proposed by Robert Mercer Taliaferro Hunter of Virginia when there was a huge federal budget surplus. The main people who supported the tariff were from the South and people who believed in the idea of free trade.
After the tariff of 1857 was passed, there was a horrible depression known as the panic of 1857 that ended the industrial boom. During this period of time, there was a dramatic drop in prices, especially for the Midwestern farmers. There was also a huge increase in unemployment in the northern cities. Since the depression mainly affected the northerners, the depression boosted the southerner’s ego believing that their agricultural based economy was superior to their industrial based economy. The main cause of the panic of 1857 was due to the decline in demand of American goods in the European market. This led to banks becoming stricter with giving out loans.
Environment
Before Buchanan was elected president, there was controversy caused by the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Senator Stephen Douglas expected the issue of slavery in the territory to be settle without any violence by the antislavery farmers who came from the Midwest area to Kansas. Slaveholders from Missouri set up small houses to try to help the South control the territory. In response, free-soilers and northern abolitionists created the New England Emigrant Aid Company in 1855. This organization paid for antislavery groups to travel to Kansas. With large amounts of antislavery and proslavery groups, fighting soon broke out between the two over their differences. The problem of whether Kansas should become a slave or free state soon passed over to President Buchanan, leaving him in charge of what to do with the territory.
Politics and Citizenship
When Buchanan was first elected President, he faced the problem of whether or not to accept Kansas’ proslavery state constitution. The constitution was submitted in Lecompton by the southern legislature and only seemed to benefit the wealthy slave owners. Despite much opposition from the settlers about accepting the constitution, President Buchanan tried to influence Congress to accept the Lecompton constitution and admit Kansas into the Union as a slave state. However, Congress ended up rejecting the constitution as all the Democrats, including Senator Stephen Douglas, teamed up with the Republicans to reject the constitution. In 1858, the Lecompton Constitution was defeated by majority of the Kansas settlers, who were mainly antislavery Republicans.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
In 1857, a slave and his master from Missouri (a slave state) traveled to Wisconsin (a free state) where they resided for two years before moving back to Missouri. Dred Scott, the slave, sued his master claiming that the two years he lived in Wisconsin makes him a free slave. Dred Scott took his case to the Missouri state court which later was sent to the Supreme Court. After two days, Chief Roger Taney (a Democrat from the South) ruled that Dred Scott was not free and had no right to sue for freedom for the following reason: the makers of the Constitution did not believe African Americans were considered U.S citizens, thus they had no right to sue, Congress was powerless when it comes to depriving a person of property without due process of law, and the Missouri Compromise did not include slavery from Wisconsin and other northern states. As a result of Taney’s decision, the southern democrats were ecstatic while the republicans were furious.
War and Diplomacy
In 1857, the Utah War also known as “Buchanan’s Blunder” occurred. In Utah, the Mormons feared losing their property rights and feared being banished from their lands because of their different beliefs and customs. Buchanan, hearing rumors of the Mormons rebelling, replaces Utah’s governor, Brigham Young, who was a Mormon with a new governor named Alfred Cumming who was not a Mormon. In response, a Mormon leader named John Doyle Lee leads a massacre in Utah known as the Mountain Meadow Massacre. Lee gathers a group of Mormons and Piute Indians to attack the emigrants going to California. As a result, approximately 140 people died. In addition, the removed Utah governor, Brigham Young, led a revolt to destroy army property causing President Buchanan sends Thomas L. Kane to try to settle the dispute without any more violence.

Franklin Pierce

Served as president from 1853-1857
Era: Westward Expansion Era

American Identity and Culture
During Pierce’s presidency, the country had a large population of immigrants due to an influx of new arrivals. These people were mostly from Ireland and Germany. Many settled in the poorest sections of cities and along the coast because they could not afford to move elsewhere. The immigrants ended up competing with blacks for backbreaking jobs that native-born Americans refused to do. Another issue they faced was resentment. Due to the fact that most Irish immigrants were Roman Catholic, Protestants in America saw them as a threat to their values and way of life.
Economic Transformations and Globalization
On March 31, 1854, Japan and the United States signed their first treaty together called the Treaty of Kanagawa. The United States had planned to end Japan’s isolation from the rest of the world, where its government had made trading with foreign nations forbidden. The object of the treaty was to protect American whalers’ rights, provide coaling ports, and lead to trade eventually. They only achieved two of these goals: improving American access to energy resources by getting two coaling ports and protecting the whalers (oil workers). Unfortunately, they were not able to open Japan up to trade during Pierce’s presidency.
Environment
In 1853, President Pierce added more land to the growing nation. He made the Gadsden Purchase, which added new southwestern land to for the construction of a railroad. For $10 million, Mexico sold thousands of acres of its land. In the present-day, the land forms the southern sections of the area of what is now New Mexico and Arizona. This purchase also resolved the boundary dispute that was caused by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and an inaccurately drawn map. The land proved to be an ideal location for economic growth and became an important stop.
Politics and Citizenship
Due to the growing hostilities among Protestant Americans born in the U.S. and immigrant Germans and Irish Catholics, the American party—also known as the Know-Nothing party, developed. It drew away support from the Whigs who were weakened after their defeat in the election of 1852. The party had one main issue and that was its resistance to immigrants and Catholics. Another political party appeared in 1854: the Republican Party. The party was united in its aversion to slavery among the American territories. They were only fine with slavery if it remained in the old slave states of the south. The Republican Party soon became the second largest party in the U.S.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois developed an idea for constructing a transcontinental railroad that ran across the center of the U.S. with a crucial stop in Chicago. It would start north instead of a southern route. Douglas then introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Act because he wanted to gain the South’s approval for his plan. The act suggested that the division of the Nebraska Territory should be made in half, with one being Kansas and the other Nebraska. Then, the settlers in those two territories were free to determine the outcome of the slavery issue (popular sovereignty). With this act in effect, the Compromise of 1820 was repealed. Democrats from the North criticized the law for bowing down to the “slave power.”
War and Diplomacy
Franklin Pierce adopted pro-southern policies once he was elected into the presidency. To buy Cuba from Spain, he sent American diplomats to Ostend, Belgium where they secretly negotiated. The diplomats went even further and warned Spain to sell Cuba or it would be taken by force. They proposed a price of $120 million. This was named the Ostend Manifesto. Once it was leaked to the American public however, Congress members with antislavery attitudes reacted in anger. Pierce was compelled to abandon his plans. Obtaining Cuba was made impossible because it only reflected the views of southern Democrats and alienated antislavery politicians.

Millard Fillmore

Served as president from 1850-1853
Era: Westward Expansion Era

American Identity and Culture
Through the abolitionist movements that went on during Millard Fillmore’s presidency, many literature and artworks also came from this time. In 1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote a book that followed the life a slave in the south. The name of this book was Uncle Tom’s Cabin. The book followed the conflicts and the life between a slave named Tom and his brutal white slave owner named Simon Legree. This book caused many controversial issued on slavery and is believed to be one of the leading reasons to the American Civil war. Another book that was written during Millard Fillmore’s presidency is the Impending Crisis of the South. This book was written by Hinton R. Helper who wrote it in 1857. This book was also an attack on slavery. In this book, Hinton R. Helper demonstrated the bad parts of slavery and how it severely limited their economy. The south wanted to quickly ban the book but instead it was distributed to the north by abolitionists.
Economic Transformations and Globalization
During the presidency of Millard Fillmore, Gold was discovered in the areas of California. This gold brought thousands of immigrants and migrants from all over the world. People from almost every country came to California in search for the gold. This major rush of people gave a great reason for the United States government to annex California as a state. The sewing machine was also invented at this time. In 1851, Isaac Merritt Singer patented the sewing machine together. He created new sewing machine from a rotary one that he saw being repaired in a shop in Boston, Massachusetts. There he combined elements of many different machines and used the foot pedal and power into the machine. Howe also had a machine that was created previously from his. He sued Singer in court and made Singer pay him $1.15 per machine that was created.
Environment
During the years of Millard Fillmore’s presidency many Indians that lived on the Great Plains had to leave their lands. Many of them agreed to leave their land and give it to the Federal government in exchange for reservations that were made. The federal government had them move for the building of a transcontinental railway that ran from either the north through Chicago or through the south through Louisiana. The distribution of the land was also made in the different Acts that were created. Many Native Americans were forced off of their lands and moved even farther westward. The Industrial Revolution was also still going on during this time period. People still lived in poor areas and more and more inventions were created during this time.
Politics and Citizenship
The Compromise of 1850 was a large compromise that had a large effect in the United States. It was written up during the time of Millard Fillmore’s presidency and it had California enter the United States as a free state. It also declared that the two new territories that were acclaimed be settled by popular sovereignty. The territories of Utah and New Mexico were acquired and the settlers there would have to decide whether those territories would be slave state of Free states through the popular vote. The slave trade would also be banned in the areas of Washington DC but people could still have slaves there, in the District of Columbia. The compromise also settled the boundaries of Texas and fixes their debt of $10 million dollars as compensation for lost of their land. The Fugitive Slave act was also a major legislation that was passed to enforce slavery in return for the annexation of California as a free state.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
During the presidency of Millard Fillmore, many slavery movements went on. The Compromise of 1850 was also created during this time. This compromise had many parts that were put into work. The compromise was written by Henry Clay who wrote it up after the Extremist meetings in Nashville in 1850. The Compromise of 1850 put into use a new Fugitive Slave law in which it was also enforced furiously. This new fugitive slave law had strict enforcement in which people were to track down slaves in the northern states and force them back into the south with their slave owners. Another part of the Compromise of 1850 was that California was to be entered into the Union as a free state. Instead of being a slave state, they put it into the Union as a free state. The south although, accepted the loss of another slave state because of the strict enforcement of the fugitive slave law.
War and Diplomacy
Millard Fillmore was extremely active in the areas around Asia and the Pacific; he was especially active in the areas of Japan. He kept up many trading routes with Japan and China and also the rest of Southeastern Asia. Millard Fillmore also stuck on foreign affairs with Cuba. The Compromise of 1850 which secured the slave states and free states had no right to add anymore slave states and because of this, the south wanted to gain more slave territories and therefore turning towards Cuba. Venezuelan Narciso Lopez got a small force of American southerners to gather and join his army to invade Cuba. Lopez failed his first invasion and tried again a year later but failed once again after Spanish troops had blocked them off from the island of Cuba. Fillmore was unable to stop Lopez from going because he was able to sneak out of America by sailing from New Orleans.

Zachary Taylor

Served as president from 1849-1850
Era: Westward Expansion Era

American Identity and Culture
When Zachary Taylor was elected for president in 1848, he had no political experience whatsoever. However, while he was president he did realize the sectionalism amongst the North, South, and the West. To avoid any further tension, Taylor selected his presidential cabinet members from different regions of the states. His cabinet consisted of Thomas Ewing who was the Secretary of Interior from Ohio, George Crawford who was Secretary of War from Georgia, William Ballard who was Secretary of Navy from Virginia, and William Meredith who was the Secretary of Treasury from Pennsylvania. By appointing members of the cabinet from various regions of the United States, it allowed for each region’s representative to represent each region’s desires which showed how Taylor demonstrated his acceptance of individualism between the different regions of the United States.
Economic Transformation and Globalization
In 1848, a man named James Wilson Marshall found gold while building a mill near the Sierra Nevada River. When the news spread, thousands of migrants flocked to California. In 1849, roughly 100,000 settlers flocked into California in hopes of finding gold. These people known as the “forty-niners” came to California believing God had sent them there to find gold. Due to the gold rush, some cities such as San Francisco turned into an urban settlement location. Mining was very unsanitary. Men often dug holes while mining and lived in the holes for a few days. The men faced diseases such as cholera and scurvy. In general, people faced fires, overcrowding, violence, crime, and dog fights. People also faced high food prices, back-breaking labor, and attacks from claim jumpers.
Environment
With thousands of migrants flocking to California to find gold, Taylor found it necessary to create laws to regulate and maintain the large increases in population in the west. In 1849, the settlers of California drafted a constitution and applied for statehood. In the Californian constitution, slavery would be banned. Although President Taylor was a slaveholder, he supported California in becoming a state. President Taylor also supported New Mexico as a free state even though New Mexico had no interest in becoming a free state. Agitated by Taylor’s overwhelming support for California, “fire-eaters” who were radicals met in Nashville, Tennessee, to talk about seceding from the Union. However at the same time, Henry Clay proposed a compromise which would later be known as the Compromise of 1850. The Compromise of 1850 would admit California as a free state into the Union, divide the Mexican Cession into Utah and New Mexico in which they could use popular sovereignty to decide the issue of slavery, prohibit slave trade in the District of Columbia, enforce the Fugitive Slave Law, and give the land in between New Mexico and Texas to the new lands in exchange for assuming Texas’ debt of 10 million dollars.
Politics and Citizenship
On March 7th, 1850, Senator Daniel Webster recited his speech called the “Seventh of March.” In his speech, Webster gave his support for the Compromise of 1850 meaning he supported the idea of enforcing the new fugitive slave law which stated that any federal official that captures a runaway slave must return the slave to the owner. Abolitionists from New England criticized Webster for giving his support to the compromise. After his speech, Webster was never able to regain his popularity and thus decided to resign from his position of a senate in 1850.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
During the election of 1848, Zachary Taylor stated that he had no position in whether or not slavery should be abolished in territories. However, Zachary Taylor was a southern slave holder. In the admission of California and New Mexico into the Union, Taylor supported their statehood because in California’s constitution it was state that slavery would be prohibited. The white southerners, also known as “fire-eaters” were appalled by Taylor’s support since Taylor was a slaveholder himself, they thought he would be against the no slavery clause. Angered by Taylor’s support for California and New Mexico with no slavery, the fire-eaters contemplated secession from the Union. In the end, no states seceded because of the Compromise of 1850 proposed by Henry Clay.
In 1852, the novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin written by Harriet Beecher Stowe described the daily treatment of slaves from their masters. The book described the gruesome torture they faced and the endless labor their masters forced upon them. The book instantly became a bestseller within a few weeks. Simultaneously, a law was passed that enforced Northerners to return any runaway slaves if found. However, the novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin created northern resistance toward this law because they wanted to help the slaves escape the torture they had to face.
War and Diplomacy
In 1850, Taylor’s Secretary of State John M. Clayton negotiated a treaty with Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer from Britain known as the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. The treaty was negotiated after a series of attempts by the U.S to construct the Nicaragua Canal which would connect the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean. Since Britain had claims in the Honduras, Mosquito Coast (the area near the Atlantic Coast), and Bay Islands, Britain stated that the United States had no rights to build a canal in an area that they claimed, thus leading to the negotiation of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty had three essential clauses which were: the U.S and Britain would share the usage of the canal, the canal was a neutral territory, and no colonies were to be established in Central America. In the long run, the treaty was significant because it helped establish a more stable alliance between Britain and the United States. The treaty also helped hinder American expansion into Latin America.

James K. Polk

Served as president from 1845-1849
Era: Westward Expansion Era

American Identity and Culture
James K. Polk was a follower of Jackson and therefore committed wholeheartedly to expansion and manifest destiny when he was elected president. During his presidency, Americans cried for westward expansion believing it was their right to expand towards the Pacific Ocean and all the way towards the south into Cuba, Mexico, and Central America. The United States intended to widen its civilization and control throughout North America. This was often fueled by nationalism. Other factors were population increase, rapid development in the economy, advances in technology, and reform ideals. On the other hand, northern critics claimed that expansion was a southern goal to spread slavery into western lands.
Economic Transformations and Globalization
Polk passed the Independent treasury Act of 1846 during his presidency. This act established independent treasuries to hold government funds that were separate from private or state banks. It was meant to revive the one that was passed by Martin van Buren which was repealed once the Whigs took over Congress. They had intended to make a step towards creating an institution like the Second Bank of the United States that Jackson had “killed” when he was president. This new independent treasury system required payments to be paid in hard money, or in paper backed by rare metals like silver and gold.
Environment
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo occurred in 1848 after the United States went to war with Mexico. This treaty was negotiated in Mexico by an American diplomat named Nicholas Trist. The results of the treaty called for Mexico to acknowledge Texas’ southern border at the Rio Grande. The United States also took possession of California and New Mexico, which was also called the Mexican Cession, for $15 million. Some people who were against the treaty were Whigs in the Senate because they thought it would help to expand slavery in the country. On the other hand, several southern Democrats did not agree with the treaty because they were influenced by their strong expansionist views and believed that the U.S. should have taken all of Mexico.
Politics and Citizenship
During Polk’s presidency, he favored the “reoccupation” of Oregon, the acquisition of California, and Texas annexation. Thus his slogan: “Fifty-four Forty or Fight!” This strongly appealed to westerners and southerners and their expansionist attitudes. However, Polk ended up compromising with Britain and settled for its southern half by dividing the territory at the forty-ninth parallel. In June 1846, the treaty was submitted. Some northerners thought that the treaty was a sellout to the interests of the south because it ended the possibility of free states developing from British Columbia.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
In 1846, a Pennsylvania Congressman, David Wilmot proposed a bill called the Wilmot Proviso. The proposal was meant to amend a spending bill by prohibiting slavery in any new territories that the United States received from Mexico. It went through the House of Representatives twice, but was slammed to a stop in the Senate. This was proposed while the U.S. was in its first year of the war with Mexico and the acquisition of lands only renewed the issue of slavery. Those from the North believed the war to be a southern scheme to increase the “slave power.” Therefore, they supported the amendment while southerners voted against it.
War and Diplomacy
The Mexican-American War started when Polk commanded General Zachary Taylor to mobilize an army toward the Rio Grande. By doing so, the army would be moving into Mexican territory. A Mexican army navigated past the Rio Grande and overwhelmed an American army patrol killing eleven men on April 24, 1846. Most of the war was fought in Mexico and in the end, General Winfield Scott succeeded in capturing Mexico City in September 1847. Even at the beginning of the war, Mexico was at a military disadvantage but the government refused to reach peaceful terms and accept that it had lost its land in the north. Only after Mexico City fell down did the government finally agree to U.S. terms.

John Tyler

Served as president from 1841-1845
Era: Westward Expansion Era

American Identity and Culture
John Tyler was the first person to become president from the death of the President in office. After the death of William Henry Harrison on April 4th, 1841, John Tyler, as the Vice President of the United States, became the president. The fact that he was president because of the death of the current president in office made it seem as if he was supposed to be a passive acting president. Instead he passed many laws and issued many things which made enemies in Congress. John Tyler, who issued many laws and passed many of them made these enemies and because of these enemies, he was the first president to become threatened with impeachment. Congress threatened to impeach him from office but in the end, their efforts failed. John Tyler was also not a devoted Whig. John Tyler also had the most children, with 15 children; He was the president with the most children.
Economic Transformations and Globalization
During the time of John Tyler’s presidency, many changes in the economy and culture happened. The second great awakening also happened during the time of his presidency. The many Utopian societies were formed. The Mormon religion was also founded and they migrated to Salt Lake City, Utah. People also created more reform movements during this time. People began reforming on temperance and also other things. A group of people founded the American Temperance Society whose sole purpose was to try and persuade drinkers to not only limit their drinking but to stop drinking alcohol altogether. People such as Horace Mann, Dorothea Dix, David Walker and Henry Highland Garnet all worked at reforming society; they worked on Education, Mental Asylums, and Abolitionism respectively. Women also sought reforms on their rights. The Cult of domesticity also existed in the households of this time period. Women’s rights movements also began around this time.
Environment
The environment had many changes during the presidency of John Tyler. With industrialization, people have become a lot poorer and richer. The gap between the rich and the poor people only widened with the policies that John Tyler passed. Through these gaps, the poor experienced the horrors of the cities, facing the dangerous conditions in open sewers and wastes that factories produced. Through these horrible dangers people became a lot more susceptible to diseases such as cholera and other dangerous life-threatening diseases. The large economic difference made a large difference in the environment in which people lived. John Tyler also tried to annex Texas into the Union. He was a fellow advocate in the Western expansion of the United States and strongly believed in Manifest Destiny. He tried to bring the Republic of Texas into his platform. In early 1843, he finished the Webster-Ashburton treaty and was ready to gain Texas as a sate. He though the only way to annex Texas was through his re-election in 1844.
Politics and Citizenship
John Tyler was pronounced as a Whig but was not as devoted as people believed. As president, he vetoed many of the Whigs legislations and calls for a national bank. He also favored the South and for the expansion of Democrats in the government. William Henry Harrison was expected to be a strong negotiator for Whigs and to support Whig legislations but after his death, John Tyler became president and vetoed many of the legislations that Whig members tried to pass. He even vetoed Henry Clay’s legislations for national banks after the large Panic of 1837 which made the United States in dire need of a national bank. The House of Representatives also tried to impeach John Tyler because of his actions against the Whigs. Although they attempted to impeach him, Whigs were unable to because of they later lost control over the house after the election of 1842.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
Strong abolitionist movements began around the time John Tyler’s presidency. During this time, the annexation of Texas also took place, in which John Tyler tried to annex Texas into the Union. Tyler had appointed John C. Calhoun as his Secretary of State, who was also a leading advocate in the annexation of Texas but also one in slavery. Tyler wanted Texas to be added to the United States as a slave state, and because of this, it gave rise to the resentment that came from the northern abolitionists. The annexation of Texas as a slave state also went against the balance of power between slave states and Free states; this balance in power was created in the past with the Missouri Compromise. With the major resentment from northern abolitionists it was impossible to annex Texas but after the numerous attempts it was added to the Union as a slave state.
War and Diplomacy
During the time of John Tyler’s presidency many accomplishments were made in the foreign policy of the United States. In 1844 he established the Treaty of Wanghia with China. He sent a negotiator or a Lawyer to China where they made the terms to Commerce with China. He did this to get the upper hand in commerce with the Eastern world, competing against Britain in the markets. In the same year that treaty was made, John Tyler also sent the minister Henry Wheaton to Berlin in Germany. In Germany, Wheaton negotiated with Germany to sign a trade agreement and succeeded in creating this treaty. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842 was also a great foreign policy that was created during this time. In that year Daniel Webster negotiated with Great Britain to settle the border between Maine and Canada. Tyler was also unable to fix the boundaries for Oregon but on March 3rd, 1845 he was able to add Florida into the United States, as the 27th state.

William Henry Harrison

Served as president from 1841-1841
Era: The Jacksonian Era

American Identity and Culture
William Henry Harrison set the mark of the shortest presidency in American history. His presidency only lasted one week, lasting from 4 March, 1841 to 4 April, 1841. Harrison was also the first president to die while still in office. Harrison was also a great inspirer who inspired many people. Before he took his oath to office in Washington DC, he was still trying to be the great hero who had won the great battle of Tippecanoe.
Economic Transformations and Globalization
One great transformation that took place during William Henry Harrison’s presidency was the revamping of the Spoils System that was created by Andrew Jackson. William Henry Harrison wished to reverse Andrew Jackson’s Spoils system and overturn it. Henry Clay also tried to convince Harrison to put forth his own actions but Harrison declined his preferences and put on his own for his cabinet and other appointments. William Henry Harrison wanted to completely ignore the ranking and platform of the Spoils system and completely overturn it but could never complete what he wanted.
Environment
During the presidency of William Henry Harrison, much advancement in industrialization was made in his time. By going more and more into the industrial societies, the polluting of the air was becoming more and more dirty. The air and streets and rivers became very dirty and unclean. The sanitary conditions were very bad as well. Industrialization made American cities a lot more unsanitary and the situation became worse and worse. In this time more inventions were created as well.
Politics and Citizenship
William Henry Harrison made the longest inaugural address out of all the inaugural addresses in all of American history. He took over 2 hours to read the whole address and that was even after his friends and Daniel Webster tried to shorten it. Daniel Webster, a fellow politician in the Whig party had helped him decrease the amount of time it took to read the address but after shortening it, it still took well over 2 hours to read the entire address. In his address he talked about the Whigs and how he wanted to repudiate the policies that were made by Van Buren and Jackson.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
William Henry Harrison had come from a wealthy and strongly slave-supporting slaveholding family from Virginia. Although he came from a family that greatly depended on slaves and greatly supported them, in his campaign for presidency and during his presidency he had argued against slavery and that it is not necessary. His family that was full of slaves also had no effect on his inauguration for he was still promoted by the “common men” that were supporting Jackson’s beliefs from the past.
War and Diplomacy
William Henry Harrison had come from the war of 1812 and survived and even led the war as a great war general. Now he has run for president and he has won. Even in his inaugural address, he had marched into Washington DC as if he had just won the war, reliving the great glory of winning the battle at Tippecanoe. He not only relived the victory on his own, but by marching into Washington DC like that, he had made the whole nation relive the great glory of winning on that day.

Martin Van Buren

Served as president from 1837-1841
Era: The Jacksonian Era

American Identity and Culture
During Martin van Buren’s presidency, the country went through an economic crisis. Americans experienced great misfortune and hunger. Unemployment rates increased and people began protesting. Van Buren’s four years in the White House was marked with bank failures, bankruptcies and massive unemployment. This misfortune gave the Whigs an opportunity to step up and take control of the government. (The Whig Party was established during Jackson’s presidency). Because of this tumultuous period that occurred during his presidency, van Buren was given the nickname “Martin van Ruin.”
Economic Transformations and Globalization
The Panic of 1837 was an economic depression that partially resulted from the decisions made during Jackson’s presidency. Jackson’s opposition to the Bank of the United States and his decision to veto its recharter doubled the total number of banks, which in turn, made bank note values triple. In May 1837, prices tumbled and banks suspended specie payments (converting paper money into gold and silver). In response to this crisis, President Van Buren established an independent treasury. This system kept government funds separate from the system of the national bank.
Environment
In 1838, Martin van Buren finally went through with his predecessor’s plans to resettle the Native Americans west of the Mississippi. 15,000 Cherokees were forced to leave Georgia by the U.S. Army. This resulted in the deaths of 4,000 Cherokees due to the hardships they endured. Though they were promised supplies, the government never followed through and the lack of it along with harsh weather and conditions caused many to perish on the way. Their infamous trek towards the west was called the “Trail of Tears” because the people endured challenges like disease, exhaustion, and hunger during the forced march.
Politics and Citizenship
The Whigs were placed in an ideal environment to bring down Van Buren and the Jacksonian Democrats during the election of 1840. This was due to the fact that voters were dissatisfied with the economy and the bad shape that it was in. The Whigs’ presidential candidate was William Henry “Tippecanoe” Harrison. In order to emphasize his modest origins, they used symbols like hard cider and log cabins; hence the “Log Cabin and Hard Cider” campaign which occurred in 1840. They also used name calling as a form of propaganda, which was where the nickname “Martin van Ruin” originated from. The Whigs also portrayed Van Buren as an aristocrat with a taste for foreign wines.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
Once Texas gained independence from Mexico, it applied for statehood. However, Van Buren (just like Jackson) refused to annex the territory. One of his reasons for this was because he opposed slavery, and annexing Texas would only add to the slave states. Also during this time period, freedmen (free African Americans; non-slaves) in the North had little to no rights and almost none could vote. Meanwhile, in the South, slavery remained and slaves were only protected by “Slave Codes” that prevented inhumane treatment. Slavery became more important as cotton plantations became the foundation of the southern economy.
War and Diplomacy
One issue that Martin van Buren faced when he became president was a potential conflict with Great Britain. At this time, Canada was fighting for its independence and some American citizens were helping the Canadians with the cause by selling guns and supplies to them. The rebels took refuge on an island which divided Canada and the U.S. (specifically New York). After the British ordered Canadian loyalists to destroy a supply ship that killed one American, people wanted to declare war against Britain. Van Buren declared U.S. neutrality on the issue of Canadian independence in January 1838 and Congress enforced it by passing a neutrality law discouraging Americans from participating in foreign conflicts.

Andrew Jackson

Served as president from 1829-1837
Era: The Jacksonian Era

American Identity and Culture
During the presidency of Andrew Jackson, many of the common people were on the Jacksonian side. People were very patriotic and very enthusiastic about Jackson being president. The country was also split into a very class-like divide. Through Jackson’s policies and ideals, such as the hatred for the Bank of the United States, he supported the “common people” and claimed for the different treatments of this bank. His ideas split America between the poorer southern and western groups and the northern elitists who had all the wealth in society. The major split between these two groups emphasized the great diversity that is present in the United States.
Economic Transformations and Globalization
Many economic changes occurred during the presidency of Andrew Jackson. One major policy that was passed was the Specie Circular. This policy required all purchases of any federal land to be made in “hard” money, or gold and silver instead of paper money issued by the bank. This soon plunged the nation into the Panic of 1837. Another major issue was the rechartering of the Bank of the United States. The bank, which was going to be expired, was refused a rechartering by President Andrew Jackson. The bank was not issued another charter because of Jackson’s suspicions of the bank being corrupt. Jackson took federal funds and created “pet banks”, state banks that held the federal funds.
Environment
One of the major issues that occurred during Jackson’s presidency was the Indian Removal Act. This act forced Native Americans to be removed and forced westward regardless of whether they were successfully living with the American white people. Andrew Jackson and other white settlers wanted the land that the Native Americans took up and removed them to other unwanted land in the west. The Industrial Revolution and the factory system that was being introduced were now being used and was a very big part of the vast population growth that occurred in the United States.
Politics and Citizenship
During Jackson’s presidency, a nullification crisis occurred where states asserted the belief that they could nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional. This was a result of what they called the Tariff of Abominations in 1828. This tariff was passed by Jackson supporters in Congress to increase Northern support in his presidential campaign. South Carolina was hit the hardest due to the opening of new land for cottoning in the southwest. Jackson’s vice president, John Calhoun who came from the state, issued “South Carolina Exposition and Protest” to gain support for nullification. It would declare the federal law void (like it never existed), and refuse to carry out the law. Jackson was against the act of nullification because he saw it as a hindrance to unity within the nation. President Andrew Jackson also used his veto power, more so than any executive before him. An example of his extensive use of veto power was when he vetoed the Maysville Road Bill. This bill planned to provide government funding to build a Kentucky road (which was in the state of his opponent Henry Clay).
Slavery and its legacies in North America
Not all African Americans were slaves during Andrew Jackson’s presidency. A few of them were free; however, that did not stop them from being treated like second-class citizens. A majority of them lived in southern states closer to the north like North Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland. Some slaves managed to buy their freedom from their masters, though this practice was outlawed in the South in the 1830s. There were only a couple of free African Americans who were financially sound, even owning land and slaves of their own, while a majority worked as low-paying laborers. On the other hand, slavery continued to grow in the south. In 1793, Eli Whitney’s invention, the cotton gin, changed the cotton industry and increased the need for slaves.
War and Diplomacy
In 1829, Mexico banned slavery and made all inhabitants convert to the religion of Roman Catholicism, angering the Americans. This developed friction between the two groups, especially because Mexico refused to continue allowing American immigrants into Texas. In 1834, General Santa Anna became Mexico’s dictator and insisted on ruling over Texas. In March 1836, American settlers under Sam Houston rebelled and announced it an independent republic. They were victorious and Santa Anna was forced to sign a treaty that recognized Texas’ independence and granted it territory north of the Rio Grande. Houston, the president of the Republic of Texas, applied for annexation through the U.S. government (being added to the U.S. as a state). However, Jackson put off its request because of opposition from northerners afraid of the expansion of slavery and creation of new slave states from the Texas territories.

John Quincy Adams

Served as president from 1825-1829
Era: The Jacksonian Era

American Identity and Culture
The Americans during the time of John Quincy Adams have gained a lot of insight and caused a lot of change from the recent Revolutionary and War-like thinking from the War of 1812 and the Revolutionary war. People began to be more educational and made many reforms. For example, Thomas Cole had established a newly made school called the Hudson River School for Landscape painting. By establishing this school, Americans can go there and become more cultural and artistic. People can also further develop their artistic skills for those who want to paint landscapes. Art was a major part of this time. Literature was also an important part of this time. In the year 1827, an American artist named, Audubon, publishes one of his most famous books, The Birds of America. Both literature and art were major developments in the time of John Quincy Adams’ Presidency.
Economic Transformations and Globalization
The Steam Powered Printing Press was invented on December 7th, 1826. It made newspapers more available to a mass audience, which also in turn increased the literacy rate in the United States. Internal improvements were also made during John Quincy Adam’s presidency. John Quincy Adam’s also decreased the national debt from $16 million to $5 million. During his presidency, there was also the start of industrialization, such as the beginnings of the Lowell system and the Lowell girls. Agriculture was also improved, when inventions like the power loom and other textile industry inventions were created. Another one of his proposals was the extension of the Cumberland Road, into Ohio and going through St. Louis. He also began construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal.
Environment
The time during John Quincy Adams involves the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution. The introduction to the factory system in America made a large difference in the environment in his time. With the raw materials that people created, it spewed fumes and waste everywhere into the streets and into the air. Cities like New York were crawling with poor people. These poor people came as immigrants and even as people form America. The living conditions were horrible. People also began the use of Cotton during this time. People in the south would produce lots of cotton. They produced cotton because of the high demand made by the north and also from European countries. With the high demand from industrialization, it was necessary to produce more raw materials and that’s what people in the south did.
Politics and Citizenship
John Quincy Adams presidency had many political issues passed. In 1828 he passed the Tariff of 1828. This tariff was also labeled as the Tariff of Abominations by southern people. They gave it this name because it had a strong effect on their economy. The tariff greatly reduced the market in goods that came from Britain and was strongly pressured by the British abolitionists who made a living from their cotton, which they imported to the United States. By reducing the prices for the imports of Cotton, it greatly made the difference in price for the southern cotton and British cotton larger. This greatly angered the southern plantations who gained profit from selling Cotton. His election into office was also thought to be corrupted. The election at which he was elected was known as the corrupt bargain. When Jackson and John Quincy Adams and others all had the amount of electoral votes, it fell to the House to settle this. Through Henry Clay’s negotiation skills, the house settled on John Quincy Adams being the next president, thus creating a “corrupt bargain.”
Slavery and its legacies in North America
John Quincy Adams was a strong opponent against slavery. He believed that the president would be able to abolish slavery if a civil war were to break out. He also believed that Slaves would always revolt against the Southerners if the South became its own independent country. Over time, John Quincy Adams also grew a stronger resentment towards the practices of slavery. The Tariff of 1828 that he signed was also strongly hated by the slave holders in the south because they didn’t like how it could destroy their rights as slave-holders. He strongly spoke against the growing “Slave Power” and attacked it as if it were a conspiracy.
War and Diplomacy
John Quincy Adams was a one of the greatest diplomats in all of American history. He had created the treaties of reciprocity with many nations. Some of the nations that he had worked with include: Mexico, the Hanseatic League, Sweden, Denmark, Austria, Prussia, and many of the Scandinavian countries. Although he was a great diplomat, he was also severely limited to his options because of these rivalries in Congress not allowing him to succeed in his diplomatic affairs. Although his fellow congressman held him back, he still would have done well in the diplomacy of foreign policies because his past experiences in foreign policies and all of the things that he issued in his years before would have saved him and he would not have to face dangers from them.

James Monroe

Served as president from 1817-1825
Era: The Era of Good Feelings

American Identity and Culture
Monroe’s presidency, which was from 1817 to 1825, was known as the Era of Good Feelings. During this period, there was a dramatic increase in optimism, nationalism, patriotism, and goodwill caused by the end of the War of 1812 and due to the Federalist Party being replaced by the Republican Party. The Americans were so patriotic that they tried to incorporate patriotism into every aspect of the American culture. Heroes from war, such as Charles Willson Peale, Gilbert Stuart, and John Trumball were emphasized in paintings. Although the period was named the Era of Good Feelings, there were internal problems and controversy over the topics of internal improvements, public land sales, the national bank, and tariffs.
Economic Transformation and Globalization
Before the War of 1812, Congress decreased tariffs on imported goods to increase government revenue. While during the War of 1812, many U.S manufacturing companies were forced to support the ongoing war by only producing war supplies. Therefore after the War of 1812 ended, factories no longer needed to produce war weapons resulting in Congress passing the tariff of 1816 which increased the rates of tariffs on imported goods to aid U.S manufacturing companies from going bankrupt since they would be competing against foreign manufacturing factories trying to flood American markets with their products. Thus, the tariff of 1816 became known as the first protective tariff and encouraged more people to start their own manufacturing companies.
In 1819, there was a depression known as the panic of 1819. This depression was caused by the Second Bank of the United States trying to control the inflation. During this period, the value of money decreased, state banks were out of business, unemployment increased, more people declared bankruptcy, and many were imprisoned for debt. The panic of 1819 struck the West the hardest. The Bank of United States was forced to foreclose many farmlands due to debt created by the War of 1812.
Environment
During the War of 1812, American troops moved into western Florida which was Spain’s territory. However after the war, Spain had a difficult time trying to govern Florida after the American troops left to the colonies in Southern America to put down the revolts there. With the troops gone, large groups of runaway slaves, Seminoles, and white outlaws flocked to Florida giving President Monroe an excuse to take action in Spanish Florida. With Monroe taking action, Spain feared the U.S would take Florida by force and therefore Spain decided to negotiate with the U.S. In 1819, the Florida Purchase Treaty was passed in which Spain gave the U.S all the territory in western Florida, Spain’s claims in the Oregon Territory in exchange for 5 million dollars and for the U.S to give up its claims over Texas.
Politics and Citizenship
John Marshall, appointed by President John Adams, was still the Supreme Court judge during Monroe’s presidency. During Monroe’s presidency, John Marshall made several rulings in which made him seem more in favor of a central government and property rights over states’ rights. In the McCulloch v. Maryland case which was about whether or not a state could tax a federal bank. With a loose interpretation of the Constitution, Marshall ruled that a state institution had absolutely no power over federal institutions, thus state institutions were not allowed to tax a federal institution. In the Cohens v. Virginia case, the Cohens were sued for selling lottery tickets created by the Congress. As a result of this case, the Supreme Court established judicial review which was the act that the Supreme Court could review a state court’s ruling that involved any authority of the federal government.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
During James Monroe’s presidency, slavery played a main role in the conflict between deciding whether the western lands should allow slavery or not. The Southerners who wanted to settle in the west demanded for the territory to allow slavery for their economic motives which were to use slaves for their labor in their cash crops fields. On the other hand, Northerners who wanted to settle in the west demanded for no slavery since they believed it was morally wrong and had no use for slaves. In 1819, when the Missouri territory applied to become a state, slavery caused controversy over the balance of slave states and free states. As a result, in 1820 the Missouri Compromise was ratified. The compromise stated that any territory north of the latitude 36º 30’line in the Louisiana Purchase territory would not allow slavery. The compromise also admitted Missouri into the Union as a slave state and admitted Maine into the Union as a free state to settle the balance of slave states and free states.
War and Diplomacy
Although the War of 1812 ended, there were still many diplomatic problems between Britain and the United States. In 1817, Britain and the U.S agreed to a disarmament deal. In the Rush-Bagot Agreement, naval armament was limited in the Great Lakes region and border fortifications were extended between the U.S and Canada. In 1818, Congress passed the Treaty of 1818 which strengthened the relationship between Britain and the United States by sharing the right to fish near the coast of Newfoundland, the Oregon territory, and establishing limits in the northern region of the Louisiana Territory.
In 1823, President James Monroe, realizing the desires of Europe to colonize the United States, proposed the Monroe Doctrine which stated that the U.S would not accept any European power to interfere with the affairs occurring in the Western Hemisphere. Angered by Monroe’s words, the European monarchs could no longer seek any land from the Western Hemisphere or else they will face the wrath of the British navy.

James Madison

Served as president from 1809-1817
Era: The Early National Era

American Identity and Culture
During James Madison presidency term from 1809 to 1817, there was an increase in nationalism and American morale after the War of 1812. With the war ending with the Treaty of
Ghent which stated that the fighting was to be stopped between Britain and America, they decided to call it a truce ending the war as a tie. Although the Americans did not win, they did not lose either which greatly boosted their morale and nationalism because they now proved their strength by beating a major power twice. From this boost of nationalism, it encouraged the Americans to expand westward and led a future for America. The war hawks who urged for war later emerged as war heroes who became important figures that set a foundation for the next generation of politicians of America.
Economic Transformation and Globalization
After Thomas Jefferson’s presidency term was over, Madison was left to deal with all the chaos Thomas Jefferson created with his Embargo Act of 1807 which stated that American merchants were not allowed to sail to foreign ports. Jefferson’s embargo act caused an economic depression in the United States that greatly affected the merchants of New England. Although this depression led to Jefferson repealing the embargo act, the depression only got worse. As Jefferson’s successor, Madison passed the Nonintercouse Act of 1809 which allowed Americans to trade with all nations as long as they were not Britain or France. As the depression continued, Macon’s Bill No. 2 was passed in 1810 to restore trade with Britain or France depending on which country would agree to respect America’s neutrality rights. Napoleon of France was the first to agree to these terms; therefore Madison passed an embargo act prohibiting trade with Britain in 1811. However, the French still continued to impress American sailors which showed that Napoleon had no objective of making peace with America.
Environment
One factor that contributed to the War of 1812 was the pressure from frontiersmen to gain more territory. The western Americans wanted more land to use for farming and other agricultural needs leading them to desire the lands of Spanish Florida and British Canada. However in order to conquer these lands, the Indians and the British had to be defeated. Due to the desire to gain the Native American’s land, this eventually led to the death of Tecumseh (a Shawnee warrior who tried to unite all Indian tribes together) in the Battle of Tippecanoe which was led by the governor of Indiana, General William Henry Harrison.
To gain Canada, Madison sent an American army with inadequate supplies to invade Canada using a three-part invasion tactic. The three-part invasion tactic consisted of attacking Canada with an army coming from Detroit, another army attacking from Niagara, and a third army attacking from Lake Champlain. Unfortunately, the American’s failed to capture Canada as they had help from Britain. However at the end of the War of 1812, American came to recognize Canada as a neighbor and a part of the British Empire.
Politics and Citizenship
During the War of 1812, New England merchants betrayed its own union by continuing trade with Britain even though it was prohibited. Eventually this led to the Hartford Convention which was held in Hartford, Connecticut in 1814 to discuss and vote on New England’s succession from the union and to make changes to the constitution. To prevent future wars, the Republicans in the West and the South adopted the two-thirds clause which called for a need of two-thirds of the votes in the Senate and the House of Representatives to declare war. Promptly after the adoption of the two-thirds clause, the Treaty of Ghent was ratified by the Senate in 1815. The Treaty of Ghent declared the war of 1812 over, the return to all conquered lands before the war, and the recognition of the boundaries between Canada and the United States before the war.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
During Madison’s presidency, he did nothing to end the practice of slavery. Similar to all the previous presidents such as Washington and Jefferson, James Madison was a slave-owner. However Madison stated that he strongly opposed slavery and considered it a “great evil”, therefore making Madison a hypocrite because he stated he did not believe in slavery, yet he was a slave owner who owned more than a hundred slaves. Madison also stated that he thought about emancipating slaves, however made no action to emancipate them. The practice of slavery continued in the Southern and Western states as the primary source of labor for harvesting cotton in which the South’s and the West’s economy depended on.
War and Diplomacy
During James Madison’s presidency, the War of 1812 also known as “Madison’s War” took place. There were many factors that led to the outbreak of the war. A huge factor that contributed to the cause of the war was the British impressment of American sailors. Americans believed that the impressment caused by the British was violating the neutrality rights of America. However, not only were the British impressing American sailors, but the French were impressing American sailors as well. Although the French were impressing American sailors too, the Americans viewed that British impressment was far more important and thus decided to declare war in hopes of winning and making Britain respect the Americans neutrality rights. Another factor that led to the war of 1812 was a group of politicians called the war hawks. The war hawks strongly pressed for war against Britain wanting to gain the Canadian territory from Britain and to remove the Native Americans from the frontier. The war ended with the Treaty of Ghent which declared no country was the winner and called for the fighting to end.

Thomas Jefferson

Served as president from 1801-1809
Era: The Early National Era

American Identity and Culture
As Thomas Jefferson became the third U.S. president, the nation experienced a shift in power from the Federalists to the Democratic Republicans. This smooth transition of power from one political party to the other came to be known as the Revolution of 1800. During Jefferson’s inaugural address in 1801, he emphasized how important the fundamental principles of the country were and stated: “We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists.” Eventually, the Federalist Party seized to exist. Therefore, it can be argued that the people were “all Republicans” during his presidency. Under Jefferson’s leadership, the country endured a political change and strengthened its spirit for democracy and nationalism.
Economic Transformations and Globalization
During Jefferson’s presidency, American settlers in the Indiana Territory depended on the commerce along the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans for survival. As a result, they were frightened when Spanish officials closed the port to Americans in 1802. President Jefferson also feared that the United States risked getting involved in European affairs because another nation was controlling the river. In the end, the United States and France agreed on the Louisiana Purchase where the U.S. bought the Louisiana Territory. The country expanded more than twice its original size and this added to Jefferson’s dreams for an agrarian society of independent farmers in the future due to the acquisition of millions of acres of land.
Environment
Before an agreement was reached for the Louisiana Purchase, Jefferson managed to persuade Congress to finance an expedition of the area for scientific research which was headed by Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark. After the U.S. bought the territory from France, the expedition’s importance only grew. It had started at St. Louis, went through the Rocky Mountains, and then arrived at the Oregon coast before turning back around to report its findings. The scientific exploration yielded results that: provided more information on the science and geography of the land, strengthened American claims to Oregon, mended relationships with Native American tribes, and created maps and routes for future settlers and the area’s fur trappers.
Politics and Citizenship
Once Jefferson took office, he attempted to block John Adams’ last minute Federalist appointments. Therefore, he commanded James Madison, who was his Secretary of State, not to hand over the commissions of Adams’ “midnight judges”. One of these “midnight appointments” named William Marbury decided to sue for his commission. The outcome of the court case of Marbury v. Madison was determined by Chief Justice John Marshall. He declared that Marbury was entitled to the commission, but Madison did not have the right to deliver it because it was not stated in the Constitution. He also ruled that the Court had the power to declare laws unconstitutional and as a result, established judicial review.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
President Jefferson was hypocritical in his stance on the institution of slavery. Although he saw it as wrong and immoral, Jefferson had a plantation and kept slaves of his own. He also believed that African Americans were racially inferior. This meant that he believed that slaves should be emancipated, yet he did not see them as equals to white men. During his presidency, slavery was still legal and it was far from being demolished. The country relied on slaves as a free source of labor and had them doing backbreaking work.
War and Diplomacy
The Leopard, a British warship, fired on the Chesapeake which was a warship belonging to the United States in 1807. This attack killed three U.S. citizens and resulted in the impressments of four others to Britain’s navy. This event was named the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair and raised anti-British sentiment in the U.S. and the demand for war. Jefferson handled this situation by calling for the ratification of the Embargo Act of 1807. This halted trade with foreign nations by stopping American merchant ships from sailing to their ports. It was Jefferson’s attempt to stop the British from violating the United States’ neutral rights during Britain’s Napoleonic wars with France. Unfortunately, the Embargo Act failed and he repealed it in 1809. Even then, U.S. ships could only engage in legal commerce with all nations, with the exception of Britain and France.

John Adams

Served as president from 1797-1801
Era: The Early National Era

American Identity and Culture
Before the year 1800, the capitol of the United States was located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. During George Washington’s presidency, John Adam’s predecessor, congress passed an act known as the Residence Act of 1790 which declared Philadelphia as the temporary capitol for the United States until a new permanent capitol could be decided. The act was passed as a compromise for Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison because Jefferson and Madison wanted the capitol to be located somewhere in the South along the Potomac River, while Hamilton wanted the capitol to be located near the Potomac River in order to gain delegate votes to pass his Assumption Bill. Washington soon decided that the new capital would be located in Washington D.C.; however the construction of the new capital would be completed by December 1800. On June 11, 1800 the construction of the new capitol was finished and the new capital of the United States was officially located in Washington D.C. John Adams was the first president to reside in the White House also known as the Executive Mansion, however only stayed for a few months after losing his reelection to Jefferson. After John Adams, every president after him has resided in the White House.
Economic Transformation and Globalization
In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin which improved the efficiency of planting and picking cotton. During the 1800s, the South’s economy was based on exporting their cash crops. The main export during the time was cotton, so with the new invention exports of cotton increased and more farmers began to look for fertile land to grow cotton on. Before Adam’s presidency, the main cash crops were tobacco and indigo. In need of more land, southerners often looked for land near Mississippi and Alabama. As southerners searched for more land to grow their cotton, they invested their money on buying new slaves to work in the cotton fields and saved money to export their cotton to foreign countries, such as, British textiles factories.
Environment
With farming becoming more and more popular because of the profitable business of cotton, farming was known to be a stable job to provide food and clothes for the family. In the west, large amounts of land were available for farming. The federal government offered the land to farmers at very low costs. State banks also provided farmer with loans at low rates to help farmers afford the cheap land. In the beginning, the western famers were only allowed to send their crops through the Mississippi and Ohio River to reach the southern markets. However with more canals being built, the farmers were allowed to send their crops to cities with factory markets growing in the east.
Politics and Citizenship
In the election of 1800, the Federalists had lost a huge amount of support and popularity. They lost power in both the legislative and executive branches of the U.S. government. People complained about having to pay new taxes enacted by the Federalists to fund the building of a stronger U.S. Navy and to prepare for a war against France, which in the ended never happened because John Adams pursued a peaceful method of negotiating with France. People also detested the Alien and Sedition Acts. Therefore, majority of the votes went to the Republicans Aaron Burr and Thomas Jefferson who ended up in a tie. As a result of both candidates receiving the same amount of votes, the House of Representatives decided to give the majority to Jefferson because they were convinced by Alexander Hamilton that Jefferson would make a better President than Burr who Hamilton claimed was dangerous. With Jefferson winning the election of 1800, it signaled the transfer of power from the Federalist Party to the Republican Party in a peaceful process.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
Before John Adams was elected president, he was vice president to George Washington. In 1755, John Adams proposed the Declaration of Independence. To gain support from Virginia, Adams selected Thomas Jefferson to write the first draft of the Declaration of Independence. While Jefferson wanted to include a no slavery clause, the Continental Congress did not want anything about slavery written in the constitution. Adams, on the other hand, had no position on slavery and only cared for the preservation of the Union with or without slavery.
After John Adams was elected into presidency, he did not interfere in any issues concerning slavery because of his position as President. Adams was forced to have a “blind eye” about the issues of slavery and tried to keep to his belief of preserving the Union. While his wife, Abigail Adams, was known to be a female abolitionist, she pressed for the abolition of slavery without the help of Adams.
War and Diplomacy
During Adams’ presidency, John Adams faced his first major obstacle which later becomes known as the XYZ affair. When news of U.S. trading ships being detained by French warships and privateers because of resentment from the French caused by the French Revolution reached the United States, Americans were angered. Fearing violence, Adams tried to settle this peacefully by sending delegates to Paris to compromise with the French government. The French ministers, whose identities were never exposed, were dubbed as X, Y, and Z. They demanded for bribes otherwise they would have no interest in compromising. The Americans anger now turned into rage wanting to go to war with France. One group of Federalists led by Alexander Hamilton urged for war in hopes of gaining Spanish and French territories in North America. However, John Adams still wanted to settle this dispute peacefully and sent new delegates to Paris to compromise.

George Washington

Served as president from 1781-1791
Era: The Early National Era

American Identity and Culture
During Washington’s presidency, two political factions appeared—the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans (who were previously known as the Anti-Federalists)—that led to a lasting effect on the American identity by permanently creating political parties. The Federalists supported a loose interpretation of the Constitution and favored a rule by the wealthy. On the other hand, the Democratic-Republicans had a strict interpretation of the document and favored states’ rights and power in the hands of the lower classes. They were supported by Southern agriculture and frontiersmen. These two factions contained conflicting ideas and due to this fact, stayed separate. Even to this very day, political parties remain in the government and struggle to gain more control than the other.
Economic Transformations and Globalization
George Washington appointed Alexander Hamilton as his Secretary of the Treasury. Due to the government’s financial difficulties, Hamilton presented a plan to Congress to place U.S. finances on a stable foundation. The first part of his plan called for the government to assume the war debts of the states, thus creating a permanent national debt. In return for widespread support, Hamilton agreed to Jefferson’s plan to locate the nation’s capital along the Potomac River. The second part of his plan was to raise revenue by imposing taxes. Since the tariff rates set by Congress were not as high as he had hoped, Hamilton persuaded Congress to pass excise taxes. Lastly, Hamilton wanted to set up a national bank that would stabilize currency. Washington supported Hamilton on this issue, and the Bank of the United States was created. This allowed the government to print paper money and use federal deposits to encourage business.
Environment
George Washington sent John Jay, who was Chief Justice, to Britain to settle on an agreement after Britain started searching and seizing American ships. This resulted in Jay’s Treaty where the British agreed to evacuate their posts in the Northwest and was allowed to continue their fur trade. The Jay Treaty and victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers gave the American government power over large areas of land. As a result, Congress encouraged settlers to occupy these lands by passing the Public Land Act in 1796. This divided and sold the land at reasonable prices. The Constitution also set up a process for admitting states to the Union which went smoothly with Vermont becoming the first new state in 1791. It was followed by Kentucky in 1792 and Tennessee in 1796.
Politics and Citizenship
Major events that occurred during George Washington’s term include his own farewell address and also the system of two terms. Washington had made it official for a president to only be able to serve for no more than two terms. His farewell address also left a major legacy towards America; He told Americans not to get involved in European affairs, to make permanent alliances with other foreign countries, to form political parties, and to avoid sectionalism. This speech was left as a legacy towards the Americans that brought major changes in the ideals of the citizens. Political parties were also a major part of his term. Between the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans, major arguments took place. Washington was against political parties but in the end, they became a major part of American society.
Slavery and its legacies in North America
One major legislation that was passed during this time was the 3/5ths compromise. It says that during American census, slaves were to count as 3/5th of a person so that they could count slaves into the population but instead of being 1 whole person they would be 3/5 so that they could balance the population of the south and the north. The south, which needed slaves for their plantation work in the fields, if their entire population count included slaves, it would greatly outnumber the north who had little to no slaves. George Washington, himself, was also a slave owner.
War and Diplomacy
War was abundant during the term of George Washington. It was during this time that the French revolution was happening in France. Also, during this time, there was also a war going on between Britain and France. During one major legislation that was passed, was the neutrality proclamation. This announced to the world, that the US was neutral so that they could trade with both the French and the British. During these trades, British attacked and stole US merchant ships and this brought another treaty that was brought out by Washington was the Jay Treaty, the treaty says that British agreed to evacuate its posts on the US western frontier but nothing about merchant ships that the British attacked and stole. Americans were angered by this but Washington’s neutrality was kept safe.